Is there an indisputable link between playing video games with a high violent content and an increase in aggression levels?
Abstract
This paper looks at studies and theories that support and contradict whether the violent content contained in video games is a key factor in an increase of aggression levels.
Introduction
It seems that there is wide speculation on the effects of violence in video games and the media and whether this may in turn affect aggression levels in individuals. To begin to determine whether or not there is a link between ‘real life’ aggression and the violence portrayed in these video games we must first be clear in our understanding of the term ‘violence’. Since the idea of violence and aggression is somewhat subjective as to how it is perceived, it is essential to begin with the essence of the argument.
Literature Review
The Oxford English Dictionary (2009) describes violence as “The exercise of physical force so as to inflict injury on, or cause damage to, persons or property; action or conduct characterized by this; treatment or usage tending to cause bodily injury or forcibly interfering with personal freedom.”
Albert Bandura (1973) looks upon violence as a varying range of behaviours. He describes that these behaviours are a direct result of past experiences and events affecting an individual. These behaviours and actions become apparent in circumstances wherein the individual feels it is necessary to become aggressive and violent. (Toch 1997)
Anderson & Dill (2000) proposed The General Affective Aggression Model (GAAM), which suggests a direct link between violence in video games to aggression and antisocial behaviour in both long and short-term scenarios. Anderson & Dill continued their research and conducted two studies that directly supported this proposed model. They concluded that playing games of a high violent content and also by being exposed to these games in laboratory scenarios caused some individuals (predominately predisposed aggressive personalities and males) to have increased levels of aggression. This model is also supported by Ulhman (2004) who found that gamers that play video games with a high level of violent content seemed to have higher resentment and aggressive tendencies than gamers who played video games of a non-violent nature. Other studies and theories supporting these results are that by Salmon (2008), Merril (2003), Staub (2003), Lion & Lamb (2004) and Toch (1997).
Recently Gordon Brown PM (2007) asked for an independent review of the effect of violence in the media including video games on children. Byron (2008) conducted this independent review and concluded that although a positive link was found between aggressive tendencies and violence in games, this does not prove that one is evident because of the other. It is not clear that the aggression is caused by the game or indeed that the game is chosen by that individual due to an increased level of aggression in that individual's character. Byron also found a positive correlation between the amount of violent game exposure and an increase in aggression levels. Anderson et al. (2008) and Bartholow (2005) also concluded these findings.
Another point of view is that of Prof. Christopher Ferguson who says that there is no proven link between violent video games and violence in society. He suggests that games with a high level of violence are targeted as a kind of 'scapegoat' with which to deny the actual possible causes of social violence that need to be dealt with, such as family situations, predisposed character, genetics and other outside contributing factors. (Dumitrescu 2009)
It is worth noting recently, with regard to actual violence, there have been some similarities between the virtual violence in gaming and crimes committed in society. (Lewitt 2009)
Main Argument
It seems that there are many different stances on whether the violence content of a video game would be a significant trigger to inspire someone to become more aggressive or violent to themselves or others.
Violence as a theme in video games is not a new concept. From even the earliest interactive games there have always been games that contain some violent content. One of the earliest forms of computer gaming and graphic violence are text adventures using images generated from symbols and keys found on a keyboard.
These types of graphics are called ASCII art (Merril 2003). During the earliest text adventures using this method, violence was often depicted as a figure lying on the ground representing death or unconsciousness.
More recently graphics and video gaming design has obviously improved greatly and with it comes a higher parallel to reality. Is it simply the more realistic effects that bring into question whether an individual is able to differentiate between socially acceptable behaviour and that which is not, or is it the interactivity of the gaming culture that is the real issue?
It is hard to entertain the theory that it is the confusion between reality and the virtual environment that renders individuals to believe it is acceptable to act out in a more aggressive manner than they previously had. It is generally known that people are unique and that each person has a different tolerance level to viewing extreme violence and experiencing aggression. Likewise, it is understandable that we each have a pre-disposed level of aggression embedded within our personality. Perhaps it all comes down to the individual and whether or not they are susceptible to this influence or are more resistant to it’s effects. Bartholow’s (2005) study shows that “repeated exposure to video game violence increases aggressive behaviour in part via changes in cognitive and personality factors associated with desensitization.”
Outside factors are able to alter our personalities and experiences we encounter may affect us immeasurably. Freud’s understanding of violence took these experiences into account and also suggested that they, coupled with “primitive bloodthirstiness” could be the underlying cause of personal conflicts. These personal conflicts could then in turn cause aggressiveness and a violent disposition. (Toch 1997)
It is widely known among psychologists that repetition is key to learning and retaining information. Learning is also supported by active involvement and by positive reinforcement or rewards. (Anon. 2004) This in itself is potentially worrying. The act of playing video games is intrinsically coupled with active involvement. Often containing the promise of rewards within the storyline itself, the games are designed to challenge the player. It is safe to say that the games therefore will generally require many hours of interaction before the story reaches a conclusion.
Uhlman (2004) says that although many people that play video games on a regular basis do not think that they are affected by the violent content and graphical imagery, he suggests that perhaps these people are being affected without conscious knowledge of it. Uhlman conducted a study to ascertain whether playing a game with violent content (‘Doom’ see Figure 3.) would increase automatic aggressiveness. He found that there was a positive correlation and that these games may affect the individual’s sense of self and therefore their traits and behaviours. Marshall McCluhan supports this idea. McCluhan wrote; “those who think entertainment and education are two different things don’t know the first thing about either.” (Merril 2003)
Staub (2003) believes “The real motivation for violence is often unconscious, and a group or person’s habitual, spontaneous reactions to certain kinds of events can become highly destructive.” If it is believed that the motivation for violence is subconscious as is the effect of violent content in video games, it is not difficult to assume there may be a potential link for one to affect the other.
A poll in the Washington Post found that more than 70% of American teenage boys have played the Grand Theft Auto, a video game that has reportedly a very high level of violence and adult related content. It was found that these teens were found to have been more likely to have experienced physical aggression in reality and been in a fight compared to those who had not played the game. (Lion & Lamb 2004)
Some studies have taken into consideration the individualities of each participant and their history, regarding aggression levels and also their preference for playing violent video games.
Anderson & Dill (2000) proposed The General Affective Aggression Model (GAAM). This model also suggests a direct link between violence in video games to aggression and antisocial behaviour in both long and short-term scenarios. Anderson & Dill continued their research and conducted two further studies that directly supported this proposed model. They concluded that playing games of a high violent content and also by being exposed to these games in laboratory scenarios caused some individuals (predominately predisposed aggressive personalities and males) to have increased levels of aggression.
Supporting the GAAM established by Anderson & Dill, Cope-Farrar, Kremar & Nowak (2004) studied gamers that played video games with a high level of violent content. They found that these individuals seemed to have higher resentment and aggressive tendencies than gamers who played video games of a non-violent nature.
Anderson et al. (2008) reported that they had found a significant link between adolescents that play violent video games and an increase in aggressive tendencies. During the study the participants’ existing aggressive levels and also whether they already played games of a violent nature was established. Anderson et al. studied both samples in the United States and in Japan to compare cultures that are generally considered to be highly violent (U.S.) and low in violence (Japan).
As with all arguments there is evidence to support the idea that society is being over cautious and in fact there is no concrete evidence to prove video games have any relevance to ‘real life’ violence and aggression.
Christopher Ferguson suggests that politicians are actually using the violence portrayed in videogames as a scapegoat. Ferguson goes on to imply that there are many more prominent factors that contribute to aggression levels and violence in society. These could include home-life, poverty, unemployment, mental health issues and frustration with the economy. He says that instead of addressing these issues, society is looking away towards the video game industry and media as being held accountable. (Dumitrescu 2009)
Dr Guy Cumberbatch is also of this opinion and states that; “The research evidence on media violence causing harm to viewers is widely exaggerated and does not stand up to scrutiny.” Cumberbatch went on to suggest that the evidence that a positive correlation existed was unconvincing. (Salmon 2008)
Recently Gordon Brown PM (2007) asked for an independent review of the effect of violence in the media including video games on children. Byron (2008) conducted this independent review and concluded that although a positive link was found between aggressive tendencies and violence in games, this does not prove that one is evident because of the other. It is not clear that the aggression is caused by the game or indeed that the game is chosen by that individual due to an increased level of aggression in that individual's character.
There are some scenarios that have occurred in society that have been attributed to the violent and adult content of video games. One such example was of Tim Kretchmer. Kretschmer played the game ‘Far Cry 2’ on a regular basis and this year took his father’s gun and killed 15 people. It was the remarkable similarities between the game and how he carried out this crime that were so interesting. He wore similar clothes to that of the main character, used the same model of gun and hijacked a car (an integral part of playing ‘Far Cry 2’). His choice of killing technique even paralleled the game’s feature of rewarding players who shoot their victims in the head. (Lewitt 2009)
Another example is of David Thompson. He has admitted that ‘Grand Theft Auto’ inspired him to kill three police officers when he was 16 years of age. Before he committed this act it is reported that he said; “life is a video game. You’ve got to die sometime.” (Salmon 2008)
Conclusion
After extensive research it is clear that there is a great deal of evidence that there is indeed a clear link between violence in video games and aggression levels. Most studies tend to suggest that there is also a positive correlation that the games can cause an increase in aggression levels. However clear this may appear, it is not the end of this issue. It is clear video games do have the ability to influence aggression levels, but in essence it is not clear as to who will be affected and to what degree. Until a more extensive knowledge of the human psyche is developed it should be assumed that everyone has the potential to be affected in some way by being exposed to a high level of violent content in the games they play.
References
Anderson, C.A., Sakamoto, A., Gentile, D.A., Ihori, N., Shibuya, A., Yukawa, S., Naito, M. & Kobayashi, K. 2008 Pediatrics. Longitudinal Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggression in Japan and the United States. [Internet] http://pediatrics.aapublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/122/5/e1067 [27/10/2009]
Anon. 2004 Psychology Matters. Violent Video Games – Psychologists Help Protect Children from Harmful Effects. [Internet] http://www.psychologymatters.org/videogames.html [27/10/2009]
Bartholow, B. D. 2005 Sage Journals Online. Correlates and Consequences of Exposure to Video Game Violence: Hostile Personality, Empathy, and Aggressive Behavior. [Internet] http://www.psp.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/31/11/1573 [04/11/2009]
Dumitrescu, A. 2009 Softpedia. Playing Violent Videogames Doesn’t Make Gamers Killers. [Internet] http://news.softpedia.com/news/Playing-Violent-Videogames-Doesn-039-t-Make-Gamers-Killers-102876.shtml [26/10/2009]
Lion & Lamb 2004 The Lion and Lamb Project. Media Violence. [Internet] http://www.lionlamb.org/media_violence_video_games.htm [03/11/2009]
Lewitt, A. 2009 Times Online. Boy who killed 15 in school rampage stole pistol from his father’s arsenal. [Internet] http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article5891507.ece [02/11/2009]
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Salmon, J. & Dunn, Y. 2008 Outlaw.com. Videogames and age restrictions – the US and UK. [Internet] http://www.out-law.com/page-5810 [27/10/2009]
Staub, E. 2003 The Psychology of Good and Evil. Why Children, Adults and Groups Help and Harm others. Cambridge UK. Cambridge University Press
Toch, H. 1997 Violent Men. An Inquiry Into the Psychology of Violence. Revised Edition. USA. American Psychological Association
Uhlman, E. Swanson, J. 2004 Exposure to violent video games increases automatic aggressiveness. Journal of Adolescence. 27 (Issue 1) pp.41 - 50
Bibliography
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Salmon, J. & Dunn, Y. 2008 Outlaw.com. Videogames and age restrictions – the US and UK. [Internet] http://www.out-law.com/page-5810 [27/10/2009]
Staub, E. 2003 The Psychology of Good and Evil. Why Children, Adults and Groups Help and Harm others. Cambridge UK. Cambridge University Press
Toch, H. 1997 Violent Men. An Inquiry Into the Psychology of Violence. Revised Edition. USA. American Psychological Association
Uhlman, E. Swanson, J. 2004 Exposure to violent video games increases automatic aggressiveness. Journal of Adolescence. 27 (Issue 1) pp.41 - 50
